From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 Read online

  From the Gracchi to Nero

  ‘Still the best introduction to Roman history’

  Miriam Griffin, University of Oxford, UK

  ‘For a concise, factual narrative of the Roman world’s traumatic transformation from Republic to Empire, [it] remains unsurpassed. As a foundation for university and college courses, it is invaluable.’

  Richard Talbert, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA

  ‘Without a rival as a guide to the intricacies of Republican politics.’

  Greg Woolf, University of St. Andrews, UK

  ‘A classic textbook: clear, authoritative and balanced in its judgements … it has established itself as the fundamental modern work of reference for teachers, sixth-formers and university students … it is still the best and most reliable modern account of the period.’

  Tim Cornell, University of Manchester, UK

  ‘This book is a modern classic. It provides a clear narrative of the two centuries from 133 B.C. to 68 A.D., but it is especially valuable for Scullard’s extensive footnotes which provide undergraduates with both the ancient sources and the most important scholarly contributions.’

  Ronald Mellor, University of California at Los Angeles, USA

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  H. H. Scullard

  From the Gracchi to Nero

  A history of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68

  With a new foreword by Dominic Rathbone

  London and New York

  First published 1959 by Methuen & Co.

  First published in Routledge Classics 2011

  by Routledge

  2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

  Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

  by Routledge

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  Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

  This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.

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  © 1959, 1963, 1970, 1976, 1982 H. H. Scullard

  Foreword © 2011 Dominic Rathbone

  All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

  British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

  A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

  Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

  A catalog record for this book has been requested

  ISBN 0-203-84478-5 Master e-book ISBN

  ISBN10: 0–415–58488–4 (pbk)

  ISBN10: 0–203–84478–5 (ebk)

  ISBN13: 978–0–415–58488–3 (pbk)

  ISBN13: 978–0–203–84478–6 (ebk)

  CONTENTS

  CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE x

  PREFACE xxi

  PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION xxii

  PREFACE TO THIRD, FOURTH AND FIFTH EDITIONS xxii

  FOREWORD xxiv

  I Rome at the Cross-Roads 1

  1. Introductory 1

  2. The Growth of Rome’s Empire 2

  3. The Senatorial Government 4

  4. The People and the Knights 7

  5. Greek Cultural Influences on Roman Life 8

  6. The Effects of Wealth and Slavery 11

  7. Rome’s Allies 13

  8. Economic Changes and the Land Problem 16

  II The Gracchi 19

  1. Attempts at Reform 19

  2. Tiberius Gracchus 20

  3. The Land-bill of Tiberius Gracchus 22

  4. The Importance of Gracchus’ Attempt 24

  5. The Land Commission, Scipio Aemilianus and the Allies 25

  6. The Legislation of Gaius Gracchus 27

  7. The Opposition to Gaius Gracchus 30

  8. The Importance of the Gracchi 32

  9. Foreign Affairs: Asia and Gaul 33

  III The Rise and Fall of Marius 36

  1. The Senatorial Settlement 36

  2. The Metelli and Marius 37

  3. The Outbreak of War against Jugurtha 39

  4. The Defeat of Jugurtha 41

  5. The Northern Menace and its Political Repercussions 44

  6. L. Appuleius Saturninus 46

  7. Marius’ Victory over the Germans 47

  8. Marius’ Sixth Consulship (100 B.C.) 49

  IV The Rise and Fall of Sulla 52

  1. The Nineties 52

  2. The Younger Drusus 53

  3. The Outbreak of the Italian or Social War 54

  4. The Italian or Social War 56

  5. Sulpicius’ Tribunate and Sulla’s Capture of Rome 58

  6. Cinna 60

  7. Mithridates, King of Pontus 61

  8. The First Mithridatic War 63

  9. Civil War 65

  10. Sullanum Regnum 67

  11. Sulla’s Reforms 68

  12. Sulla’s Retirement 71

  V The Rise of Pompey 73

  1. The Counter-revolution of Lepidus 73

  2. Q. Sertorius 74

  3. The Senate’s Administration 77

  4. Spartacus 79

  5. The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (70 B.C.) 80

  6. Pompey’s Commands 82

  7. The Pirates 83

  8. The Third Mithridatic War: Lucullus 84

  9. Pompey’s Victory 86

  10. Pompey’s Settlement of the East 88

  VI Pompey and Caesar 90

  1. Crassus and Caesar 90

  2. Catiline’s Conspiracy 93

  3. The Return of Pompey 95

  4. The First Triumvirate 96

  5. Caesar’s First Consulship (59 B.C.) 97

  6. Clodius 99

  7. The Renewal and Breakdown of the Triumvirate 101

  8. Crassus and Parthia 105

  VII The Domination of Caesar 107

  1. Conditions in Gaul 107

  2. The Reduction of Gaul (58–56 B.C.) 109

  3. Germany and Britain (55–54 B.C.) 111

  4. Revolt and Reconquest 112

  5. Civil War in Italy, Africa and Spain (49 B.C.) 114

  6. War in Greece, Egypt and Asia (48–47 B.C.) 116

  7. The End of the Civil War 119

  8. Reform and Reconstruction 121

  9. Policy and Administration 124

  10. Caesar’s Autocracy 125

  VIII The Second Triumvirate 131

  1. The Rise of Antony 131

  2. The Rise of Octavian 132

  3. The Second Triumvirate and Philippi 134

  4. Octavian’s Consolidation of the West 137

  5. Antony in the East 140

  6. The Final Break and War: Actium 143

  IX Economic and Social Life in Italy and the Provinces in the Late Republic 146

  1. Agriculture, Industry and Trade 146

  2. The Aristocracy 149

  3. The Knights 151r />
  4. Other Classes 151

  5. The City 153

  6. The Provinces 154

  X Art, Literature and Thought in the Late Republic 159

  1. Graeco–Roman Culture 159

  2. Art and Architecture 161

  3. The Poets 163

  4. Historical Writing 166

  5. Oratory 169

  6. Education and Learning 170

  7. Law 171

  8. Philosophy and Religion 173

  XI The Augustan Principate 176

  1. Octavian’s Problem 176

  2. The First Settlement (27 B.C.) 178

  3. The Second Settlement (23 B.C.) 180

  4. Consolidation of the Principate 181

  5. The Last Twenty-five Years of Augustus’ Principate 183

  6. Princeps and Senate 185

  7. The Executive: Magistrates and Officials 189

  8. Rome and Italy 192

  9. Social Reforms 195

  10. Religious Reforms 197

  11. Virgil, Horace and Livy 199

  12. Other Writers of the Augustan Age 203

  XII Frontiers and Provinces 205

  1. Imperial Problems 205

  2. The Army 205

  3. The Eastern Frontier 208

  4. Africa, Spain and Gaul 212

  5. The Northern Frontier 214

  6. Provincial Administration 219

  7. Augustus 223

  XIII Tiberius and Gaius 226

  1. The Accession of Tiberius 226

  2. Germanicus 228

  3. The Civil Government of Tiberius 230

  4. Sejanus 232

  5. Provincial Affairs under Tiberius 234

  6. Tiberius’ Last Years 236

  7. Gaius (Caligula) 239

  8. The Provincial Policy of Gaius 240

  XIV Claudius and Nero 243

  1. The Accession of Claudius 243

  2. Claudius and the Senate 245

  3. Claudius’ Centralized Administration 246

  4. The Provincial Policy of Claudius 249

  5. The Conquest of Britain 252

  6. Court History under Claudius 255

  7. Nero’s First Years 256

  8. The Administration of Seneca and Burrus 258

  9. Nero the Artist 259

  10. The Gathering Storm 260

  11. The Provinces and Foreign Affairs 263

  12. The Storm Breaks 268

  XV Economic and Social Life in the Early Empire 272

  1. Agriculture 272

  2. Industry and Trade 273

  3. Trade Beyond the Empire 277

  4. General Economic Conditions 279

  5. The Senatorial Class 283

  6. Social Life 285

  XVI Art, Literature and Religion in the Julio-Claudian Period 292

  1. Architecture and Art 292

  2. Post-Augustan Literature 295

  3. The Writers 297

  4. Philosophy and Religion 302

  5. Judaism and Christianity 306

  ABBREVIATIONS 311

  NOTES 313

  SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 396

  INDEX 399

  MAPS AND TABLE

  The Roman Empire circa A.D. 68 xxx–xxxi

  The Roman Empire circa 133 B.C. 224

  The Roman Empire at the Death of Augustus 224

  Genealogical Tree of the Chief Members of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty 270

  Italy 290

  CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

  133

  Tiberius Gracchus, tribune, proposes a land law. Opposed by tribune Octavius who is deposed; land law passed and land-commission established. Pergamum bequeathed to Rome by Attalus III. Gracchus murdered. Scipio Aemilianus storms Numantia and settles Spain. Slave war continues in Sicily

  132

  Court established to punish Gracchus’ supporters. Land-commission working. Slave-war ended and Sicily reorganized. Revolt of Aristonicusin Asia Minor

  131

  Lex tabellaria of tribune Papirius Carbo establishes secret ballot for legislation

  130

  Aristonicus defeated by Perperna

  129

  Death of Scipio Aemilianus. Organization of province of Asia

  126

  Law of tribune Pennus de peregrinis. Sardinia restless

  125

  M. Fulvius Flaccus, consul, proposes enfranchisement of the Latins. Revolt of Fregellae

  124

  Defeated Fregellans settled at Fabrateria. War against Arverni and Allobroges in Gaul

  123

  First tribunate of Gaius Gracchus who proposes many laws. Lex Rubria (or 122) establishes Junonia on the site of Carthage; later repealed. Castellum at Aquae Sextiae near Massilia

  122

  Second tribunate of Gaius Gracchus and further legislation. Opposition of M. Livius Drusus. Gracchus fails to win re-election for 121. Balearic Islands subdued and colonies founded at Palma and Pollentia

  121

  Senate passes the ‘last decree’. Civil disorder in which Gaius Gracchus is killed; his followers executed by Opimius. Defeat of Arverni and Allobroges; Via Domitia constructed in southern Gaul

  120

  Trial and acquittal of Opimius

  119

  Marius, as tribune, carries legislation to improve voting methods. Gracchan land-commission abolished. Lex agraria

  118

  Colony at Narbo Martius in southern Gaul. Adherbal, Hiempsal and Jugurtha become joint rulers of Numidia

  117

  Death of Hiempsal

  116

  Jugurtha consolidates his position. Senatorial commission sent to settle Numidian affairs

  115

  Aemilius Scaurus, consul, regulates apportionment of freedmen in tribes

  114

  Marius in Spain. Scordisci defeat C. Cato in Macedonia

  113

  Cn. Carbo defeated at Noreia by Cimbri

  112

  Jugurtha sacks Cirta. Rome declares war on Jugurtha

  111

  Lex agraria (lex Thoria?). Temporary agreement with Jugurtha

  110

  Mamilian enquiry. Renewal of war in Africa; surrender of Aulus Albinus

  109

  Metellus gains some success against Jugurtha

  107

  Marius, elected consul, enlists volunteers and proletarii; succeeds Metellus and captures Capsa. Tigurini defeat Cassius in Gaul

  106

  Birth of Cicero and Pompey. Caepio’s lex iudiciaria. Marius advances into western Numidia. Bocchus of Mauretania surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla

  105

  Cimbri and Teutones destroy armies of Caepio and Mallius at Arausio

  104

  Judiciary law of Servilius Glaucia. Marius, consul II, reorganizes Roman army. Lex Domitia concerning election to the priestly colleges. Second Sicilian Slave War

  103

  Saturninus tribune: corn law, lex de maiestate, land-allotments for Marius’ veterans. Marius, consul III, trains army in Gaul

  102

  Marius, consul IV, defeats Teutones near Aquae Sextiae. M. Antonius sent to Cilicia to deal with pirates

  101

  Marius, consul V, and Catulus defeat Cimbri near Vercellae

  100

  Marius consul VI. Legislation of Saturninus. Marius breaks with Saturninus and Glaucia; rioting in Rome; senatus consultum ultimum; Marius restores order. Death of Saturninus and Glaucia. Birth of Julius Caesar. Second Sicilian Slave War ended. Colony settled at Eporedia in Gallia Cisalpina